illuminati, designation in use from the 15th century, assumed by or applied to various groups of persons who claimed to be unusually enlightened. The word is the plural of the Latin illuminatus (“revealed” or “enlightened”).
Early illuminati
According to adherents, the source of the “light” was viewed as being directly communicated from a higher source or due to a clarified and exalted condition of the human intelligence. To the former class belong the Alumbrados (Spanish: “enlightened”) of Spain. Spanish historian Marcelino Menéndez y Pelayo first finds the name about 1492 (in the form aluminados, 1498) but traces them back to a gnostic origin and thinks their views were promoted in Spain through influences from Italy. One of their earliest leaders—indeed, some scholars style her as a “pre-Alumbrado”—was María de Santo Domingo, who came to be known as La Beata de Piedrahita. She was a labourer’s daughter, born in Aldeanueva, south of Salamanca, about 1485. She joined the Dominican order as a teenager and soon achieved renown as a prophet and mystic who could converse directly with Jesus Christ and the Virgin. Ferdinand of Aragon invited her to his court, and he became convinced of the sincerity of her visions. The Dominicans appealed to Pope Julius II for guidance, and a series of trials were convened under the auspices of the Inquisition. Her patrons, which by then included not only Ferdinand but also Francisco Cardenal Jiménez de Cisneros and the duke of Alba, ensured that no decision was taken against her, and she was cleared in 1510.
St. Ignatius of Loyola, while studying at Salamanca (1527), was brought before an ecclesiastical commission on a charge of sympathy with the Alumbrados, but he escaped with an admonition. Others were not so fortunate. In 1529 a congregation of unlettered adherents at Toledo was visited with scourging and imprisonment. Greater rigours followed, and for about a century the Alumbrados afforded many victims to the Inquisition, especially at Córdoba.
The movement (under the name of Illuminés) seems to have reached France from Seville in 1623. It attained some prominence in Picardy when joined (1634) by Pierre Guérin, curé of Saint-Georges de Roye, whose followers, known as Guerinets, were suppressed in 1635. Another body of Illuminés surfaced in the south of France in 1722 and appears to have lingered till 1794, having affinities with those known contemporaneously as “French Prophets,” an offshoot of the Protestant militant Camisards.
Of a different class were the Rosicrucians, who claimed to have originated in 1422 but achieved public notice in 1537. Their teachings combined something of Egyptian Hermetism, Christian gnosticism, Jewish Kabbala, alchemy, and a variety of other occult beliefs and practices. The earliest extant writing which mentions the Rosicrucian order was the Fama Fraternitatis, first published in 1614 but probably circulated in manuscript form somewhat earlier than this. It recounts the journey of the reputed founder of the movement, Christian Rosenkreuz, to Damascus, Damcar (a legendary hidden city in Arabia), Egypt, and Fès, where he was well received and came into possession of much secret wisdom. He returned finally to Germany, where he chose three others to whom he imparted this wisdom and thus founded the order. Later the number was increased to eight, who separated, each going to a separate country. One of the six articles of agreement they adopted was that the fraternity should remain secret for 100 years. At the end of 120 years the secret burial place and the perfectly preserved body of the founder were discovered by one of the then members of the order, along with certain documents and symbols held in very high esteem by Rosicrucians. The sacred vault was re-covered, the members of the order dispersed, and the location of the vault was lost to history. The Fama ends with an invitation to “some few” to join the fraternity. Among those believed to have been associated with the order were German alchemist Michael Maier, British physician Robert Fludd, and British philosopher and statesman Sir Francis Bacon.
The Bavarian illuminati
Perhaps the group most closely associated with the name illuminati was a short-lived movement of republican free thought founded on May Day 1776 by Adam Weishaupt, professor of canon law at Ingolstadt and a former Jesuit. The members of this secret society called themselves “Perfectibilists.” Their founder’s aim was to replace Christianity with a religion of reason, as later did the revolutionaries of France and the 19th-century positivist philosopher Auguste Comte. The order was organized along Jesuit lines and kept internal discipline and a system of mutual surveillance based on that model. Its members pledged obedience to their superiors and were divided into three main classes: the first included “novices,” “minervals,” and “lesser illuminati”; the second consisted of freemasons (“ordinary,” “Scottish,” and “Scottish knights”); and the third or “mystery” class comprised two grades of “priest” and “regent” as well as “magus” and “king.”
Beginning with a narrow circle of disciples carefully selected from among his own students, Weishaupt gradually extended his recruitment efforts from Ingolstadt to Eichstätt, Freising, Munich, and elsewhere, with special attention being given to the enlistment of young men of wealth, rank, and social importance. From 1778 onward Weishaupt’s illuminati began to make contact with various Masonic lodges, where, under the impulse of Adolf Franz Friedrich, Freiherr von Knigge, one of their chief converts, they often managed to gain a commanding position, It was to Knigge that the society was indebted for the extremely elaborate constitution (never, however, actually realized) as well as its internal communication system. Each member of the order had given him a special name, generally classical, by which he alone was addressed in official writing (Weishaupt was referred to as Spartacus while Knigge was Philo). All internal correspondence was conducted in cipher, and to increase the mystification, towns and provinces were invested with new and altogether arbitrary designations.
At its period of greatest development, Weishaupt’s “Bavarian Illuminati” included in its operations a very wide area, extending from Italy to Denmark and from Warsaw to Paris; at no time, however, do its numbers appear to have exceeded 2,000. The order and its doctrines appealed to literary giants such as Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and Johann Gottfried von Herder as well as the dukes Ernest II of Gotha and Charles Augustus of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach. Such notables were claimed as members although it is questionable if they were actually so. Weishaupt’s illuminati were believed to have included astronomer Johann Bode, writer and bookseller Friedrich Nicolai, philosopher Friedrich Jacobi, and poet Friedrich Leopold, Graf zu Stolberg-Stolberg.
Secret societies of this kind fitted in with the idea of benevolent despotism as a vehicle for the Enlightenment, as Goethe shows in Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship. The movement suffered from internal dissension and was ultimately banned by an edict of the Bavarian government in 1785. Some members were imprisoned, while others were driven from their homes. Weishaupt was stripped of his chair at Ingolstadt and banished from Bavaria. After 1785 the historical record contains no further activities of Weishaupt’s illuminati, but the order figured prominently in conspiracy theories for centuries after its disbanding. It was credited with activities ranging from the instigation of the French Revolution to the assassination of U.S. Pres. John F. Kennedy, and the notion of an all-knowing cabal of ancient masters remained a powerful image in the popular consciousness into the 21st century.
Later illuminati
After the suppression of Weishaupt’s order, the title illuminati was given to the French Martinists, founded in 1754 by Martinez Pasqualis and propagated by Louis-Claude de Saint-Martin. By 1790 Martinism had been spread to Russia by Johann Georg Schwarz and Nikolay Novikov. Both strains of “illuminated” Martinism included elements of Kabbalism and Christian mysticism, imbibing ideas from Jakob Böhme and Emanuel Swedenborg.
secret society
secret society, any of a large range of membership organizations or associations that utilize secret initiations or other rituals and whose members often employ unique oaths, grips (handshakes), or other signs of recognition. Elements of secrecy may vary from a mere password to elaborate rituals, private languages, costumes, and symbols. The term may be applied to such widely divergent groups as U.S. college fraternities and sororities, the Ku Klux Klan, and international Freemasonry as well as to similar phenomena in ancient or precolonial cultures.
Secret societies throughout history
Among the earliest secret societies of which historical evidence exists were the mystery religions of ancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome, which had secret rites, initiations, and revelations of still more ancient wisdom. Among these were the cult of Dionysus, the keepers of the Eleusinian and Orphic mysteries, and the Pythagorean brotherhood. Whereas the mysteries employed secrecy to guard religious truths, other groups have been forced to adopt secrecy to escape or survive suppression and persecution. This was the case of the early Christians in pagan Rome and, in their turn, of various groups deemed heretical by the Roman Catholic Church in the Middle Ages. So widespread were these groups that the church created the Inquisition to hunt them down and prosecute their members.
Medieval guilds resorted to solemn initiatory oaths and other elements of secrecy primarily for economic self-protection. Throughout history, revolutionary, subversive, and conspiratorial groups have organized secretly, as in the case of the Sons of Liberty in the American colonies. The repression of liberal, nationalist, and republican movements in Europe in the 19th century, for example, produced an underground network of revolutionary secret societies such as the Italian Carbonari. Other examples may be found in the Irish Fenian society and the Decembrists of imperial Russia.
guildOrdinances of the Bakers' Guild of York, England, c. 1590.
The very existence of secret societies has often prompted antagonism and fostered accusations of immorality, subversion, and heresy. Such claims were made against the Roman mystery cults and were used to justify the ruthless suppression of the Knights Templar in the early 14th century. Philip IV of France accused the knights of heretical and licentious practices, but these charges were entirely unfounded, and Philip seems to have acted largely out of a desire to seize the Templars’ vast wealth. Adam Weishaupt’s Illuminati was something of a fad among Europe’s intellectual and political elite in the late 18th century, making it a rather attention-seeking entity for a “secret” society. Nevertheless, the Illuminati ran afoul of Bavarian authorities; in 1785 the group was banned, and its members were imprisoned or driven from their homes. The 1826 disappearance of William Morgan, a New York bricklayer who had threatened to expose the secret teachings of the Freemasons, fueled the growth of the Anti-Masonic movement. Distrust of the fraternal order spread throughout New England and the Mid-Atlantic states, and the movement coalesced into the first significant third party in United States history.
Many modern secret societies were formed primarily for social and benevolent purposes and to carry out charitable and educational programs. These have been especially numerous in the United States and, in the later 19th century, attracted large numbers of immigrants who sought companionship and guidance among people who spoke their native language and followed their customs. In many communities, such societies in the 21st century have continued to provide the principal means of members’ social and civic activities. With all their diversity of type and origin, secret societies have certain characteristics of structure and function in common, and some of their ceremonies reveal surprising similarities.
Structure and function of secret societies
Secret societies are, by their very nature, made up of persons presumably oriented toward similar ends. These ends usually manifest the characteristic that differentiates a given secret society from all others; that is to say, the ends are secret. Moreover, admission to membership almost always involves the explicit obligation to preserve such secrecy, and penalties for its violation are likewise explicitly stated. The explicitness involved may sometimes apply only to the members of the society, for secrecy may be so complete that even the existence of some societies is not revealed to outsiders; revolutionary, heretical, and similarly subversive secret societies are cases in point. More frequent is partial secrecy, where the existence of the society is publicly acknowledged or even proclaimed, as was the case with the Ku Klux Klan in the United States after the American Civil War and again in the 1920s and throughout the civil rights era in the 1950s and ’60s. At least some of the ends are made generally known, some of the society’s ceremonies are performed openly, and public cooperation with other groups having fundamentally differing ends may occasionally be undertaken.
Obviously, secret societies would lose their reason for existence if secrecy were ever entirely abandoned. Many fraternal organizations, for example, maintained the secrecy of their rituals into the 21st century, although, as in the case of college fraternities and sororities, these survived largely as formalities. Other academic societies—most notably, Yale University’s Skull and Bones and similar groups at other Ivy League schools—have traditionally guarded their secrets much more closely. In most instances, the core of the binding secrecy is to be found in the society’s ceremonies. The essential part of this is rarely if ever legitimately known to those who are not initiates, particularly where the really significant ends are concerned. In order to ensure full and exact knowledge of these ends on the part of initiates, a group’s rituals tend to emphasize painstakingly accurate repetition and close guardianship. They are often designed to provide a strong emotional appeal, impressing the members with the gravity of the ceremonial occasion and the authenticity of the knowledge thereby revealed. In many secret societies, the ceremony is cast in dramatic form and contains episodes taken from holy books, revered legends, and episodes thought to be of crucial historical importance. Often, members play parts in dramatic portrayals of the origin of the society, and in such a portrayal the candidate for initiation usually has a key role. For instance, the initiate may undergo a symbolic journey fraught with obstacles and temptations and at the end thereof receive the “truth” or esoteric wisdom viewed as the society’s characteristic possession. In this process physical objects such as keys, pillars, swords, books, globes, or staves may be endowed with symbolic meaning, so that their display on later occasions helps to reinstate, psychologically speaking, the awesomeness of the initiatory ceremony.
Many secret societies operate through a system of degrees of progressively higher rank in which secrets are revealed step by step. Initiation is therefore hierarchical; members at the higher levels are more fully aware of the ends pursued by the society than are those at the lower. Consequently, secrets of recognition are graded. That is to say, although there is ordinarily a grip (handshake), password, ceremonialized greeting in question-and-answer form, esoteric phrase, or secret jargon serving many of the purposes of a special language that distinguishes even the lowest initiate from nonmembers, the society has secrets within secrets. Those more fully initiated make every effort, by the use of special names, ordeals, or revelations, to set themselves apart, on the one hand, and, on the other, to stimulate the lower ranks to the effort necessary to reach the exalted degrees.
The diligent preservation of higher secrets serves several other purposes. For instance, beginning initiates are thereby impressed with the necessity for silence. Not only is this the case, but the art of remaining silent without giving offense to fellow members at lower levels is imparted by direct example. This is especially important when “final truth” and the real ends of the society are known only to those in the more advanced degrees, and even more so when, as in a few societies, the supreme leaders remain unknown to the rank-and-file membership. An essential technique in all of this is that secrets remain unwritten, so far as possible; they must therefore be transmitted verbally in a sort of master-pupil situation. Frequently the transmission takes place under striking ceremonial conditions, reinforced by oaths of allegiance and coupled with detailed specifications of dire punishment for traitors. In many modern secret societies, such punishment seldom if ever occurs, but there have been instances of rigidly enforced discipline, especially in societies of subversive type—and some modern secret societies, in their early stages, were regarded as subversive.
The effects of secrecy on personality are many, but among them may be listed the growth of a sense of fusion, of a “mystic tie,” induced by the sharing of secrets under the appropriate ceremonial circumstances. Further, the appropriately initiated persons may effectively acquire norms or standards that extend or even substitute for the norms of the larger society of which they are apparently integral parts. Some secret societies, indeed, lay claim to the total personality of the fully devoted member, but the fulfillment of this claim is virtually impossible. Even though not fulfilled, however, the claim to the total personality means that sharp distinctions may be drawn between members and nonmembers, or in-groups and out-groups. Some secret societies, even when their ends are not overtly subversive, may therefore operate in ways such that they tend to split larger societies. This being the case, supporters of various institutions within the larger society may become quite antagonistic to secret societies in general, resulting in accusations of overtly traitorous, heretical, immoral, or similarly unworthy ends. Political antagonism to secret societies has of course been much in evidence under totalitarian regimes— Nazi, fascist, and communist—where all groups not controlled by the state are suppressed to the greatest possible extent.
Where secret societies effectively coordinate with the larger societies of which they are part, as is often the case, the coordination is frequently linked with class affiliation. Secret societies recruited from the upper classes are more prone to support the existing social order than to radically challenge it; at most they aim at the “moral regeneration” of the larger society. Secret societies drawn from the ranks of the disaffected, however, are seldom free from subversive intentions and may become drastically revolutionary, heretical, or even criminal, such as the Mafia and the Molly Maguires. An astonishing number of secret societies, when thoroughly investigated, can be shown to have ceremonies testifying to common origins or, at the very least, remote historical connections. At the same time, some secret societies bearing the same name and practicing the same rituals, in all essentials, show striking variations from one country to another.
Rituals and ceremonies of secret societies
An account of the rituals of the Chinese Hongmen society, or Triad, by historian J.S.M. Ward indicates some of the similarities in the ceremonial offerings of different groups.
According to Ward’s account, the Hongmen society of China traces its legendary founding to 386 ce and the Pure Land Buddhist patriarch Huiyuan. The Hongmen rituals as they evolved showed a blending of Daoist-Buddhist ideas, while having curious analogies with the Egyptian Book of the Dead and with certain “higher degrees” in Western Freemasonry. The initiation ceremony symbolized the journey of the soul through the underworld and paradise to the holy city of the gods, called the City of Willows. Interwoven with this was an allegory of the experiences of the applicant during the quest for union with the Supreme Being. As regards its analogies with Freemasonry, practically every important incident is found in certain higher degrees in England and the United States, while most of the hand signs are known to many Freemasons.
The ceremony comprised four sections. First, the traditional history was given to the candidates in the anteroom before they entered the lodge. It was a moving story, wherein a body of Shaolin monks who had helped the emperor were requited by him with the foulest treachery, all being murdered save five, who became the founders of the order. There were three villains, and for political purposes one was a Manchu emperor, either Kangxi, or, in some versions, his son, but originally the story was allegorical. After this the candidates were “prepared” in the anteroom. The most notable incidents were (1) ceremonial washing and changing into white robes to symbolize not only mourning but that they themselves were dead; (2) the right arm, shoulder, and breast and also the left knee were made bare; and (3) grass slippers were substituted for ordinary boots. Meanwhile, the master opened and consecrated the lodge and invested the society’s officers. The third section dealt with the actual admission of the candidates, who had to pass through three gates inside the lodge and take the oath of blood brotherhood by mingling their blood with that of all members present in a cup of wine, from which each person present drank.
The last section consisted of a catechism; the master asked a series of questions, which the conductor answered for the candidates. The significance of the ceremony was revealed by the opening questions:
Master: Whence come you?
Vanguard: From the East.
Master: At what time?
Vanguard: At sunrise, when the East was light.
The answers revealed that the applicants had been on a long and mysterious journey, first by land and then by boat, until they reached the City of Willows. Throughout the whole of this part of the ceremony, great stress was laid on numbers, which had a definite mystical significance. The brotherhood had many aliases, the most famous being Tiandihui (“Society of Heaven and Earth”).
